{"id":295,"date":"2012-08-08T16:41:15","date_gmt":"2012-08-08T16:41:15","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/?page_id=295"},"modified":"2013-01-24T22:30:58","modified_gmt":"2013-01-24T22:30:58","slug":"falconiform-language-syntax","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/?page_id=295","title":{"rendered":"Falconiform Language – Syntax"},"content":{"rendered":"

This page is under construction!
\n<\/strong>Contains\u00a0 Word Order, Nouns, Articles, Negatives,
\nInterrogatives, <\/strong>Prepositions, Pronouns, Adjectives,
\nAugmentatives, Diminutives, Adverbs<\/strong><\/p>\n

!Ka<t\u00e1 is an inflectional language, where grammatical functions are expressed by adding suffixes and prefixes, and some infixes.<\/p>\n

\u00a0Word Order<\/strong><\/p>\n

Basic declarative<\/strong> word order is SVO, same as English.\u00a0 Sometimes the object is placed between the subject and the verb for emphasis.
\nExample
\n<\/strong>Nei go\u2019ol bei\u2019ali]<\/em>\u00a0 I love you (literally, I thee love)<\/p>\n

For Word Order involving Nouns and Pronouns<\/strong> (especially Genitive Case <\/strong>and Dative Case<\/strong>), Interrogatives,<\/strong> Negatives<\/strong>, Adjectives<\/strong>, Adverbs<\/strong>, Subjunctive Mood<\/strong>, and Submissive Mood<\/strong>, see appropriate sections below.<\/p>\n

\u00a0Nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/strong>Nouns have number<\/strong>, but no grammatical gender<\/strong>.\u00a0 The only cases<\/strong> are genitive and dative.\u00a0 Everything else uses the basic nominative form.<\/p>\n

The plural <\/strong>is formed by preceding the word with a warble
\nExample <\/strong>
\npo\u2219atr\u00e9 (head); \u266bpo\u2219atr\u00e9 (heads)<\/p>\n

\u00a0Genitive Case of\u00a0 Nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0Add a trill at the end of the word.\u00a0 The genitive follows the name of the thing possessed.
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>!i zu\u2019e A\u2019a\u2019ma\u266a <\/em>:\u00a0 A\u2019a\u2019ma\u2019s fish [the fish of A\u2019a\u2019ma]
\n!i zu\u2019e u\u2019\u00edteven\u266a<\/em> :\u00a0 somebody\u2019s fish [the fish of somebody]<\/p>\n

A Note on the Preposition \u201cOf\u201d
\n<\/strong>\u201cOf\u201d in the meaning of \u201cconsisting of, composed of, containing, etc.\u201d and also \u201cfrom or in the place\u201d is not formed using the genitive.\u00a0 A special suffix (<^, i.e. whistle-chirp, functioning as a prepositional particle) is added to the noun.
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>!i sfort\u00fa<^ owau\u2194\u00e1<\/em> : the bowl of water.
\n!i Ing\u2019ei\u2019\u00e1k<^ Kris\u00ed\u2019i\u2019aid e\u2019e Poz\u00faa<\/em> : the Alliance of Kris\u00ed\u2019i\u2019aid and Poz\u00faa
\n!i<\/em> Enem\u00edt<^ <O\u2019e^tr\u00e1t <\/em>: the University of <O\u2019e^tr\u00e1t
\n\u266b!i \u266bdi\u2019ov\u00e1<^ o\u2019\u00edt<\/em> : city-dwellers (the inhabitants of city)<\/p>\n

Dative Case of Nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0The <\/strong>dative case is formed according to the following set of rules:<\/p>\n

If the noun ends in a consonant or -e, add -z.
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>!i tung\u2019anz<\/em> : (to) the leg
\n!i zu\u2019ez<\/em> : (to) the fish<\/p>\n

If the noun ends in a vowel except -e, add -\u2019ez.
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>!i o^t\u00ed\u2019ez<\/em> : (to) the creature<\/p>\n

If the noun ends in a tonal indicator, the suffix -\u2019ez<\/em> or -ez<\/em> follows the indicator.
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>!i hwi<ve\u2191\u2019ez<\/em> : (to) the tree
\n\u266b!i \u266bchuseng\u2191ez<\/em> : (to) the females.<\/p>\n

Word order<\/strong>:\u00a0 The indirect object always follows the direct object.
\nExample
\n<\/strong>!id juvi \u266batunu !i zu\u2019ez]<\/em> : He gives the fish food. [He gives food to the fish.]<\/p>\n

The dative<\/strong> is also used in place of the preposition \u201cto\u201d when it doesn\u2019t signify directional \u201ctoward\u201d or \u201cinto.\u201d
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>!I !arrukh tsu\u2019am farr! \u266b!i \u266b<parr\u00e1tz]<\/em> : The Captain spoke quietly to the officers.
\n\u266bNei lei \u266bt\u00fa\u2019iz!k \u266b\u2219\u266aut\u00ed\u2019et \u266b!i \u266b\u266ai\u2019\u00fat|aging\u2019\u00e1tz]<\/em> : We may look bizarre to the off-worlders.
\nBUT: \u00a0\u266bNei \u266bno\u2019afim ch^ \u266bhwi<ve\u2191]<\/em> \u00a0We went to the trees.<\/p>\n

Articles<\/strong><\/p>\n

!Ka<t\u00e1 employs three kinds of articles.\u00a0 All nouns require an article, with exceptions as noted.
\nArticles do not take case, so, e.g.,\u00a0 if an article is used with a noun in the genitive case, it retains the same form as if the noun were not genitive. They do take number, however, matching the number of the following noun.\u00a0 Articles are not used with pronouns like nobody, nothing, somebody, something, etc.<\/p>\n

Indefinite article<\/strong>:
\nhwe (cannot take number, obviously)<\/p>\n

Definite article<\/strong>:
\n!i (singular), \u266b!i (plural; agrees in number with noun following).<\/p>\n

Generalizing article<\/strong> (This type iof article is something like the partitive construction in French, such as J\u2019ai des crayons (I have pencils, or some pencils.):
\nhi (singular), \u266bhi (plural; agrees in number with noun following).
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>Hwe<\/em><\/strong> <imat\u00fa\u2191 as\u00ed khe\u2019\u00f3\u2191 hwe<\/strong> sta\u2219kh\u00e1rrt\u00fa] <\/em>: A rock can be a weapon.
\nBUT: \u00a0\u266bHi<\/em><\/strong> \u266b<\/em><imat\u00fa\u2191 \u266bas\u00ed khe\u2019\u00f3\u2191 \u266bhi<\/strong> \u266bsta\u2219kh\u00e1rrt\u00fa]<\/em> : Rocks can be weapons.<\/p>\n

The generalizing article<\/strong> is not used<\/strong> when noun utilize other qualifiers that prevent it from being seen as general.\u00a0 Examples are numerals (two rocks), genitive pronouns (his rock), negative qualifiers (no rock), modifiers such as \u201csome\u201d or \u201cany,\u201d or when words incorporating the prepositional particle <^ are employed (some of, none of, many of,etc.).
\nAlso, it is not used<\/strong> with proper names, such as the names of ethnic groups, as !Ka<t\u00ed.<\/p>\n

Do use<\/strong> it with the genitive case of nouns.
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>\u00a0\u266bHi \u266btung\u2019an \u266bhi<\/strong> \u266btsirr\u00fa\u266a \u266bov\u00ed\u2191 \u266bs\u266aa<t\u00e1k]<\/em> : Legs of birds are short.
\nBUT: \u266bHi \u266btung\u2019an \u266au\u2019\u00edt<\/strong> \u266btsirr\u00fa\u266a \u266bov\u00ed\u2191 \u266bs\u266aa<t\u00e1k]<\/em> Legs of some<\/strong> birds are short.<\/p>\n

Examples of article usage containing the word atunu<\/em><\/strong> (meaning edible item or [when plural] food)
\nIndefinite<\/strong>:
\nVrong \u2219agu\u2019aw ov\u00ed\u2191 hwe<\/strong> atunu]<\/em>\u00a0:\u00a0 This fruit is an edible item.<\/p>\n

Definite<\/strong>:
\n!Id atunim \u266b!i <\/strong>\u266batunu sikh \u266bov\u00edm\u2191 gi !id\u266a sfort\u00fa]<\/em>
\nHe ate the food that was [were] in his bowl.<\/p>\n

Generalizing<\/strong>:
\n\u266bHi<\/em><\/strong> \u266bo^t\u00ed\u00a0 sikh \u266b!\u00f3\u2019a <<<\/em>&sto \u266batuni \u266bhi <\/strong>\u266batunu <an kheno<!\u00f3\u2019a]<\/em> :
\nLiving beings (The beings who live) must eat\u00a0food in order to survive.<\/p>\n

Example of article usage containing the word tsurotai\u2191<\/em> (language)<\/strong>Indefinite<\/strong>:
\nKhe\u2019o!ai\u2019una hwe<\/strong> tsurotai\u2191 ov\u00ed\u2191 fs\u266ai\u2019o\u2193 <en hwe dufrakh\u2191~\u00e1t]<\/em>
\nLearning [to learn] a language is difficult for an adult.<\/p>\n

Definite<\/strong>:
\nKhe\u2019o!ai\u2019una !i<\/strong> tsurotai\u2191 \u266aem<ti\u2191 ov\u00edm\u2191 fs\u266ai\u2019o\u2193 <en !i<\/strong> bini\u2019et\u00ed]
\n<\/em>Learning the new language was difficult for the boy (male fledgling).<\/p>\n

Generalizing:
\n<\/strong>Khe\u2019o!ai\u2019una \u266bhi<\/strong> \u266btsurotai\u2191 \u266b\u266aem<ti\u2191 ov\u00ed\u2191 fs\u266ai\u2019o\u2193 <en \u266bhi<\/strong> \u266bdufrakh\u2191~\u00e1t]<\/em> Learning new languages is difficult for adults.<\/p>\n

\u00a0Negatives<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n

Negative adverbs are placed between the subject and the predicate.\u00a0 Negative adjectives precede<\/strong> the thing modified and do not take number.\u00a0 Narr<\/em> and narr\u00e1<\/em> are exceptions to the rule that adverbs end in !.<\/p>\n

haw\u2219<\/em> : no (interjection)
\nhaw\u2219 !id hwomam <ukzi\u2194!] <\/em>: <\/em>No, he came yesterday.<\/p>\n

narr <\/em>: not (adv.)
\n!id narr juvi \u266bhi \u266batunu !i zu\u2019ez]<\/em> : He does not give food to the fish.<\/p>\n

n\u266aarr <\/em>: no (adj.; does not take number)
\nNei ihul n\u266aarr su\u2019aid\u00ed\u2191] <\/em>: I get no respect.<\/p>\n

narr\u00e1 <\/em>: never (adv.)
\n!\u266aId narr\u00e1 atuni zo ne\u2019il]<\/em> : She never eats with me.<\/p>\n

haw\u2219nar\u00fa<\/em> : nothing, none (pronoun)
\nNei juvim haw\u2219nar\u00fa go\u2019ez] <\/em>: I gave nothing (none) to you.<\/p>\n

haw\u2219nar\u00fa<^<\/em> : nothing of, \u00a0none of
\nNei ali haw\u2219nar\u00fa<^ \u266b!i \u266bzu\u2019e]<\/em> : I have none of the fish.
\nNei <enemei haw\u2219nar\u00fa<^ \u266b!i \u266batunu \u266bgr\u266aa\u2019\u00e1n\u2193]<\/em> : I know nothing of the stolen food.<\/p>\n

haw\u2219ven<\/em> : no <\/strong>one, nobody :
\nThis noun declines because it is based on the general 3rd person pronoun ven<\/em> (\u201cone\u201d)\u00a0 See Pronouns (yet to come)
\nNominative<\/strong>: Haw\u2219ven atunim !i zu\u2019e]<\/em> : Nobody ate the fish.
\nObjective<\/strong>:\u00a0 \u266bVei \u266bh\u00ed\u2019utam e\u2019e \u266bto\u2019ikim haw\u2219venil]<\/em> : They entered and saw no one.<\/p>\n

Interrogatives<\/strong><\/p>\n

(As\u00a0 noted in the section on punctuation of the page Falconiform Language – Preliminary Information, the Wingding symbol used for a question mark is not a Unicode symbol.\u00a0 It prints fine in Word and in PDF and in the print editions of thew TermiteWrityer books, bujt it won’t show here, so I am substituting [?])<\/p>\n

Questions begin with a question mark and end with the sytlloable ai\u2191~ followed by the closing bracket.<\/p>\n

Word order when the sentence contains a subject, verb, and object<\/strong>:\u00a0 OSV
\n[?] !I tsirr\u00fa go to\u2019ikolda ai\u2191~]<\/em> : Do you see the bird?\u00a0 [i.e., The bird you see?]
\n[?] !I tsirr\u00fa !i !arrukh to\u2019iki ai\u2191~]<\/em> : Does the Captain see the bird? [i.e., The bird the Captain sees?]<\/p>\n

Word order when sentence contains only subject and verb<\/strong>:\u00a0 VS
\n(verb first, followed by the subject).\u00a0 Adverbs may be inserted following the verb.<\/p>\n

[?] Atuni !i tsirr\u00fa ai\u2191~] : <\/em>Does the bird eat?\u00a0 [i.e., Eats the bird?]
\n[?] \u266bOv\u00ed\u2191 hang! \u266a\u00e9in \u266bag\u00edng\u2193 ai\u2191~]<\/em>\u00a0 Are any planets nearby? [i.e., Are nearby any planets?]
\nBUT:\u00a0 [?]\u266b!i \u266b\u2219agu !i tsirr\u00fa atuni ai\u2191~]<\/em>\u00a0 Does the bird eat the seeds? [i.e. The seeds the bird eats?] \u00a0OSV
\n[?] !I tsirr\u00fa !i y\u00f3\u2219towa atuni ai\u2191~]<\/em>\u00a0 Does the reptile eat the bird?\u00a0 [i.e., The bird the reptile eats?] \u00a0OSV<\/p>\n

Word order when the object is a clause<\/strong>: VSO
\n(verb first, followed by the subject, then the clause object).
\n[?] <Enemei\u2019odam go fi !id hwomam ai\u2191~]<\/em>\u00a0\u00a0 Did you know that he arrived? [i.e., Know you that he arrived?]<\/p>\n

Use of interrogative pronouns and adverbs<\/strong> will be treated in detail in a later section, but the following information applies:<\/p>\n

Interrogative pronouns \u201cwho,\u201d \u201cwhat,\u201d etc., are considered the object (order is OSV)
\n[?] <Sei\u2019u vrain aidif\u00e1\u2193 o\u2019\u00ed\u2191 ai\u2191~]<\/em>\u00a0 Who is that fellow? [i.e., Who that fellow is?]<\/p>\n

Interrogative adverbs \u201cwhen,\u201d \u201chow,\u201d etc., are placed first, then the order is OSV, or VS if no object)
\n[?] Tsu! vrain \u2219agu\u2019aw \u266bnei\u00a0 \u266batun ai\u2191~] <\/em>\u00a0How do we eat that fruit? [i.e., How that fruit we eat?]
\n[?] Vral! \u266bni\u2019afam \u266bvei ai\u2191~] <\/em>\u00a0When did they leave? [When left they?]<\/p>\n

\u00a0Compound Predicates<\/strong><\/p>\n

These are handled as in English; no need to repeat the subject.
\n!Id h\u00ed\u2019utam e\u2019e to\u2019ikim haw\u2219venil]<\/em>\u00a0 He entered and\u00a0 saw nobody.<\/p>\n

\u00a0Prepositions<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n

Nominal objects of prepositions do not have cases.\u00a0 Pronouns do (see below)<\/p>\n

In the dative<\/strong> case of nouns, the preposition to<\/em> is not stated but implied.
\n!Id juvi \u266batunu !i zu\u2019ez]<\/em> : He gives the fish food (i.e., he gives food [to] the fish.)<\/p>\n

In genitive<\/strong> case, the preposition of<\/em> is not stated, but implied.
\n!i zu\u2019e A\u2019a\u2019ma\u266a<\/em> : A\u2019a\u2019ma\u2019s fish (i.e., the fish [of] A\u2019a\u2019ma)<\/p>\n

For the prepositional particle (<^) translated as \u201cof,\u201d See the section on Genitive Case of Nouns above.<\/p>\n

Otherwise, prepositions are used as in English, except in Submissive Mood, which will be treated later.<\/p>\n

\u00a0Pronouns<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n

Subject pronouns are generally expressed, although they may be omitted in some idiomatic constructions.<\/p>\n

A archaic deity mode of pronoun exists, used only when referring to the abstract philosophical sense of a divine being known as ferei\u2019\u00e1t<\/em>.\u00a0 It may be used in any case, but only in the 1st, 2nd familiar, and 3rd neuter persons v(using English terminology).\u00a0 It can never be plural or express gender.\u00a0 It is formed by prefixing frei- to the pronoun.\u00a0 Nominative case example:\u00a0 freinei <\/em>(I), \u00a0freigol<\/em>, (you), freivei<\/em> (it)<\/p>\n

\u00a0Order of Pronouns in !Ka<t\u00e1 <\/strong><\/p>\n

The !Ka<t\u00ed regard the form \u201cyou\u00a0 are\u201d as first person, \u201che (she) is\u201d as second person, and \u201cI am\u201d as third person.\u00a0 This order relates to a social bias; to be courteous one should think of oneself last and put one\u2019s conversation partner first.\u00a0 They consider \u201cit\u201d and \u201cone\u201d to be a fourth class of pronouns, the impersonal (is\u266ao\u2019\u00e1t<\/em>) class.<\/p>\n

\u00a0For ease of reference, the following tables will maintain the English order for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person.<\/p>\n

Nominative Case\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Singular<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plural<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

I<\/td>\nnei<\/td>\nwe<\/td>\n\u266bnei<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you (familiar)<\/td>\ngol<\/td>\nyou (pl. familiar)<\/td>\n\u266bgol<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you (formal)<\/td>\ngo<\/td>\nyou (pl. formal)<\/td>\n\u266bgo<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
he<\/td>\n!id<\/td>\nthey (masc.; rare)<\/td>\n\u266b!id<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
she<\/td>\n!\u266aid<\/td>\nthey\u00a0 (fem.; rare)<\/td>\n\u266b!\u266aid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
it (neuter or unknown gender; used as cumulative singular \u00a0 with words like everybody<\/em>)<\/td>\nvei<\/td>\nthey (in sense of plural neuter or mixed or unknown gender; common usage)<\/td>\n\u266bvei<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
one (general 3rd person, as is One [a person] cannot know the answer)<\/td>\nven<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Submissive Nominative<\/strong><\/p>\n

Expressing a submissive actor with Submissive Mood
\nSee later section on Submissive Mood for use.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Singular<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plural<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

I<\/td>\nneikh<\/td>\nwe<\/td>\n\u266bneikh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you (familiar)<\/td>\ngo\u2019okh<\/td>\nyou (familiar)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2019okh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you \u00a0\u00a0(formal)<\/td>\ngokh<\/td>\nyou (formal)<\/td>\n\u266bgokh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
he<\/td>\n!idekh<\/td>\nthey (masc.)<\/td>\n\u266b!idekh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
she<\/td>\n!\u266aidekh<\/td>\nthey ( fem.)<\/td>\n\u266b!\u266aidekh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
it (neuter or unknown gender, used as cumulative sing. with words like everybody<\/em>)<\/td>\nveikh<\/td>\nthey (in sense of plural neuter or mixed or unknown gender; common usage)<\/td>\n\u266bveikh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
one (general 3rd person)<\/td>\nvenekh<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

Objective Case
\n<\/strong>Used as direct object and as object of prepositions<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Singular<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plural<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

me<\/td>\nne\u2019il<\/td>\nus<\/td>\n\u266bne\u2019il<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you (familiar)<\/td>\ngo\u2019ol<\/td>\nyou (familiar)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2019ol<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you (formal)<\/td>\ngo\u2019o<\/td>\nyou (formal)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2019o<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
him<\/td>\n!id^<\/td>\nthem (masc.)<\/td>\n\u266b!id^<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
her<\/td>\n!\u266aid^<\/td>\nthem (fem.)<\/td>\n\u266b!\u266aid^<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
it (neuter or unknown gender; used as cumulative singular\u00a0 with words like everybody<\/em>)<\/td>\nvei\u2019il<\/td>\nthem (in sense of plural neuter or mixed or unknown\u00a0gender; common usage)<\/td>\n\u266bvei\u2019il<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
one (general 3rd person, as They will see one [a person] coming)<\/td>\nvenil<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

Genitive (Possessive) Case<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Singular<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plural<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

my<\/td>\nnei\u266a<\/td>\nour<\/td>\n\u266bnei\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
your (familiar)<\/td>\ngo\u266a<\/td>\nyour (familiar)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
your (formal)<\/td>\ngo\u2019o\u266a<\/td>\nyour (formal)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2019o\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
his<\/td>\n!id\u266a<\/td>\ntheir(masc.)<\/td>\n\u266b!id\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
her<\/td>\n!\u266aid\u266a<\/td>\ntheir (fem.)<\/td>\n\u266b!\u266aid\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
its (neuter or unknown gender; used as cumulative singular \u00a0 with words like everybody<\/em>)<\/td>\nvei\u266a<\/td>\ntheir (in sense of plural neuter or mixed or unknown gender; common usage)<\/td>\n\u266bvei\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
one\u2019s (general 3rd person, as A fall could break one\u2019s
\n[a\u00a0person\u2019s] neck)<\/td>\n		ven\u266a<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Important:\u00a0 Unlike adjectives, genitive pronouns don\u2019t agree in number with the following noun.\u00a0 The modifier\/thing-modified agreement in number is a bit vestigial.<\/p>\n

Possessive Pronouns (non-modifying)
\n<\/strong>Used as subject or predicate nominative<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Singular<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plural<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

mine<\/td>\nnei\u2191\u266a<\/td>\nours<\/td>\n\u266bnei\u2191\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
yours (familiar)<\/td>\ngo\u2191\u266a<\/td>\nyours (familiar)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2191\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
yours (formal)<\/td>\ngo\u2019o\u2191\u266a<\/td>\nyours (formal)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2019o\u2191\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
his<\/td>\n!id^\u2191\u266a<\/td>\ntheirs (masc.)<\/td>\n\u266b!id^\u2191\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
hers<\/td>\n!\u266aid^\u2191\u266a<\/td>\ntheirs (fem.)<\/td>\n\u266b!\u266aid^\u2191\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
its (neuter or unknown gender, used as cumulative singular \u00a0 with words like everybody<\/em>)<\/td>\nvei\u2191\u266a<\/td>\nits (in sense of plural neuter or mixed or unknown gender;\u00a0common usage)<\/td>\n\u266bvei\u2191\u266a<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

Dative (Indirect Object) Case<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Singular<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plural<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

(to) me<\/td>\nnei\u2019ez<\/td>\n(to) us<\/td>\n\u266bnei\u2019ez<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
(to) you (familiar)<\/td>\ngolz<\/td>\n(to) you (familiar)<\/td>\n\u266bgolz<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
(to) you\u00a0\u00a0 (formal)<\/td>\ngo\u2019ez<\/td>\n(to) you (formal)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2019ez<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
(to) him<\/td>\n!idz<\/td>\n(to) them (masc.)<\/td>\n\u266b!idz<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
(to) her<\/td>\n!\u266aidz<\/td>\n(to) them ( fem.)<\/td>\n\u266b!\u266aidz<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
(to) it (neuter or unknown gender, used as
\ncumulative\u00a0singular with words like everybody<\/em>)<\/td>\n		vei\u2019ez<\/td>\n(to) them (in sense of plural neuter or mixed or unknown \u00a0 gender; common usage)<\/td>\n\u266bvei\u2019ez<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
(to) one (general 3rd person, as That gives one [a person]\u00a0the willies)<\/td>\nvenz<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n


\nReflexives<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Singular<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plural<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

me, myself<\/td>\nnei\u2019u<\/td>\nus, ourselves<\/td>\n\u266bnei\u2019u<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you, yourself (familiar)<\/td>\ngolu<\/td>\nyou, yourselves (familiar)<\/td>\n\u266bgolu<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
you, yourself (formal)<\/td>\ngo\u2019u<\/td>\nyou, yourselves (formal)<\/td>\n\u266bgo\u2019u<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
him, himself<\/td>\n!idu<\/td>\nthem, themselves (masc.)<\/td>\n\u266b!idu<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
her, herself<\/td>\n!\u266aidu<\/td>\nthem, themselves ( fem.)<\/td>\n\u266b!\u266aidu<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
it, itself (neuter or unknown gender, used as cumulative \u00a0 singular with words like everybody<\/em>)<\/td>\nvei\u2019u<\/td>\nthem, themselves (in sense of plural neuter or mixed
\nor\u00a0unknown gender; common usage)<\/td>\n		\u266bvei\u2019u<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
oneself (general 3rd person, as One washes oneself upon
\nrising)<\/td>\n		venu<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u00a0Indefinite Usage (\u201cIt\u201d and \u201cThat\u201d)<\/strong><\/p>\n

The English pronoun \u201cit\u201d in the following senses is conveyed in several different ways in !Ka<t\u00e1.<\/p>\n

The subject of an impersonal verb without reference to agent<\/strong> (It is snowing; It isn\u2019t right; I could go, but it would be difficult):
\nThere is no such construction.\u00a0 These three sentences would be expressed:
\nSnow falls or is falling (progressive usage). \u00a0Actually, it would be \u201cSnow is happening,\u201d using the verb kheno!o <\u2197<\/em>nok<\/em>]
\nThis [or That] isn\u2019t right.
\nI could go, but that would be difficult.<\/p>\n

\u201cIt\u201d as the grammatical subject of a clause of which the actual subject is another clause or phrase
\n<\/strong>It is clear that he wants to go.\u00a0 This would be turned around and expressed, That he wants to go is clear.<\/p>\n

Two sets of words exist that mean \u201cthat,\u201d \u201cthis,\u201d \u201cthese,\u201d and \u201cthose.<\/em>\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

The first<\/strong> comprises adjectives and pronouns, both singular and plural, and has a definite usage, where a specific thing is pointed to:<\/p>\n

that (adj.): vrain
\n<\/em>that (pronoun): vraing
\n<\/em>this (adj.): vron
\n<\/em>this (pronoun): vrong
\n<\/em>those (adj.): \u266bvrain
\n<\/em>those (pronoun): \u266bvraing
\n<\/em>these (adj.): \u266bvron
\n<\/em>these (pronoun): \u266bvrong <\/em><\/p>\n

Vrain zu\u2019e ov\u00ed\u2191 nei\u2191\u266a]<\/em> : That fish is mine.
\nVraing ov\u00ed\u2191 nei\u266a zu\u2019e] <\/em>: That is my fish.
\n\u266bVrain \u266bzu\u2019e \u266bov\u00ed\u2191 !id^\u2191\u266a]<\/em> : Those fish are his.
\n\u266bVraing \u266bov\u00ed\u2191 \u266b!id\u266a \u266bzu\u2019e]<\/em> : Those are his fish.
\nEtc.<\/p>\n

The second<\/strong> set comprises indefinite usage, where the antecedent is vague or generalized.
\nIt consists of pronouns only, since an adjective will always modify a specific thing.<\/p>\n

That: vrai\u2019u
\n<\/em>This: vro\u2019u
\n<\/em>Those: \u266bvrai\u2019u
\n<\/em>These: \u266bvro\u2019u<\/em><\/p>\n

Vrai\u2019u ov\u00ed\u2191 hwe pochei\u2019\u00e1k ps\u266aats]<\/em> : That is a bad idea.
\nVro\u2019u narr ov\u00ed\u2191 \u266ao\u2019ez\u2191~]<\/em> : This is not correct.
\n\u266bVrai\u2019u \u266bov\u00ed\u2191 \u266bhi \u266bning\u2019\u00fat \u266bps\u266aats]<\/em> : Those are [the] bad excuses.
\n\u266bVro\u2019u \u266bov\u00ed\u2191 \u266bhi \u266balziv\u00ed \u266bfs\u266ai\u2019o\u2193]<\/em> : These are [the] difficult times.<\/p>\n

Adjectives<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n

Adjectives are placed after the noun as in Spanish.
\nAdjectives take number (singular and plural, i.e., more than one), matching the thing modified.\u00a0 <\/strong>As in all usages, the plural is formed by prefixing the warble.
\n\u266bti\u00f3 \u266bf\u266aei\u2019ot\u00fa<\/em> : beautiful feathers<\/p>\n

Adjectives do not take case; even if they modify dative or possessive nouns or submissive nouns, their form varies only to express number.\u00a0 <\/strong><\/p>\n

An adjective may be formed from any noun or verbal root by inserting a trill between initial consonantal phoneme and the vowel (or before an initial vowel).
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>Kris\u00ed\u2019i\u2019aid (the name of the planet)
\nKr\u266ais\u00ed\u2019i\u2019aid (adj. form)
\nfei\u2019ot\u00fa<\/em> : beauty
\nf\u266aei\u2019ot\u00fa <\/em>:\u00a0 beautiful
\nkhe\u2019i\u00f3ta<\/em> : to last or<\/em> endure
\n\u266ai\u00f3t<\/em> : lasting or<\/em> enduring
\nkhegin\u00f3\u2193a <\/em>: to bend or<\/em> to lean, incline
\ng\u266ain\u00f3\u2193<\/em> : bent or<\/em> inclined<\/p>\n

Note: <\/strong>\u00a0the prepositional particle <^ meaning \u201cof\u201d may be placed at the end of adjectives.
\nhwe rot\u00e1t\u2191~at t\u266ai!at<^ \u266bhi \u266bs^nu|fu\u2019\u00e1n <\/em>: A repetitive sequence of weather changes<\/p>\n

Notes on use and placement of adjective-forming trill
\n<\/strong>In adjectival numerals and in adjectives denoting colors, the trill is omitted.
\nWhen an adjective is formed on a word beginning with the prefixes is-<\/em> (non or un), sa-<\/em> (re-, again), or as-<\/em> (capable of), the trill is inserted in the stem.
\nExamples
\n<\/strong>t\u266aigu<\/em> : oviparous)
\nist\u266aigu<\/em> : viviparous<\/p>\n

Exceptions to adjectival word order (t<\/strong>he following precede the thing modified):
\nvrain<\/em> (that), vron<\/em> (this), \u266bvrain <\/em>(those), \u266bvron<\/em> (these)
\nn\u266aarr<\/em> (no), \u266a\u00ednt<\/em> (each), \u266au\u2019\u00edt<\/em> (some), \u266a\u00e9in<\/em> (any), \u266a\u00e9ite<\/em> (all), and similar words (none of these words takes number).\u00a0 BUT mis<\/em> (much) and \u266bmis<\/em> (many) follow the thing modified and take number.
\nColor adjectives (these do show number)
\nNumerals (words for numerals do not show number)
\nGenitive pronouns (these don\u2019t agree in number with the modified noun)<\/p>\n

Ethnic Adjectives
\n<\/strong>These follow the word modified.
\nPrf. A\u2019a\u2019ma is ethnically a !Ka<t\u00ed (singular; plural is the same; adj. is !K\u266a<\/strong>a<t\u00ed, plural is the same.)
\nA\u2019a\u2019ma\u2019s native tongue is called !Ka<t\u00e1 (adj. !K\u266a<\/strong>a<t\u00e1, would take the plural form \u266b!K\u266a<\/strong>a<t\u00e1).
\nThe name of the Birds\u2019 planet is Kris\u00ed\u2019i\u2019aid; the people of the planet are called Kris\u00ed\u2019i\u2019aid\u00e1 (singular and plural form are the same); adjectives are Kr\u266a<\/strong>is\u00ed\u2019i\u2019aid and Kr\u266a<\/strong>isi\u2019i\u00e1id\u00e1 (take plural form).<\/p>\n

For adjectives adopted from foreign language, the !Ka<t\u00ed don\u2019t prefix a warble in the plural or insert a trill in the adjectives; they use the form from the foreign language.\u00a0 These words follow the word modified.<\/p>\n

Augmentatives and Intensifiers <\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n

For emphatic verb forms (using \u201cdo\u201d in Inge), see<\/strong> later section on Emphatic Verbs.<\/p>\n

An augmentative<\/strong> may be expressed simply as a whistle (<) at the beginning of a word.
\nparrat <\/em>: leader
\n<parr\u00e1t<\/em> : officer
\nd\u266aufrakh\u2193~ <\/em>: old
\n< d\u266aufrakh\u2193~<\/em> : ancient, very old<\/p>\n

<<\u2197 is a strong intensifier<\/strong> prefixed to adjectives and adverbs <\/strong>signifying \u201cvery\u201d or \u201cso\u201d (as in so much \u2013 <<\u2197mis).\u00a0 It can be placed as a prefix to any adjective or adverb. \u00a0<<\u2197 is called do\u2219\u00e1niku<\/em>, which means \u201csomething that can strengthen.\u201d<\/p>\n

When this is done to adjectives beginning with a vowel, the \u266a denoting the adjective moves to the front of the <<\u2197 (remember, a whistle (<) functions as a vowel.)
\n\u266a<<\u2197 <\/em><khu<\/em> : huge, enormous \u2013 (\u266a<khu<\/em> is big, so \u266a<<\u2197<khu is very, very big)
\nCf. <<\u2197ps\u266aats : very, very bad (where the \u266a stays put)
\nExample
\n<\/strong>Vrain hwi<ve\u2191 ov\u00ed\u2191 <<<\/em>\u2197t\u266aift] <\/em>: That tree is very young.<\/p>\n

More examples of the meaning \u201cvery\u201d or \u201cso\u201d:
\n<\/strong>Nei go\u2019ol bei\u2019ali <<<\/em>\u2197mis]<\/em> : \u00a0I love you very much or<\/em> so much.
\nGo oinodlam\u2191 \u266a<<<\/em>\u2197iken^hei fi go oinar\u00f3wau\u2194odam]<\/em> : You would become so tangled that you would drown (here <<\u2197 means \u201cso.\u201d)<\/p>\n

<<\u2197 can stand alone as an adverbial intensifier.
\n<\/strong>Nei to\u2019ikem haw\u2219nar\u00fa narr <<<\/em>\u2197 hwe hwi<ve\u2191] <\/em>: I saw nothing, not even a tree.
\nNei narr at kheks\u00e1rri\u2019i khegrake <<<\/em>\u2197]<\/em> : I can\u2019t wait to go lekking!<\/em><\/p>\n

<<& can be suffixed to a possessive <\/strong>pronoun or noun to indicate \u201cown.”
\nId takelim !id\u266a<<<\/em>\u2197 sfort\u00fa]<\/em> : He broke his own bowl
\n!I tsut\u00fa aidifa\u2193\u266a<<<\/em>\u2197 ov\u00edm\u2191 ksi! t\u266aakuts\u2193]<\/em> : The fellow\u2019s own statement was also incorrect.<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Diminutives<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0A diminutive<\/strong> is sometimes expressed as a double warble at the end of the word.
\nbi\u2019\u00e1t\u266b\u266b <\/em>: little nestling (a term of endearment)<\/p>\n

Occasionally the double warble has substantive meaning.
\nlo\u266b\u266b<\/em> : flower bud (diminutive of lo<\/em> (flower)<\/p>\n

Another type of diminutive uses adaptations of words like u\u2019\u00edt<\/em> (some, a little, a bit) or st\u266aa<u<\/em> (little, small).\u00a0 These are prefixed to a word.
\nsta<di\u2019ov\u00edt :<\/em> cell, literally, little house
\nsta<alzi <\/em>: \u201cminute,\u201d the 40th part of a Kr\u266a<\/em>is\u00ed’i’aid\u00e1 \u201chour\u201d; it means literally \u201clittle time.\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0Adverbs<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0An adverb<\/strong> is formed by adding a beak click [!] at the end of the adjective (omitting the adjective-forming trill [\u266a]), or by similarly adapting other parts of speech.
\nThis is the only occasion when a click is used terminally!
\n<\/strong>f\u266aei\u2019ot\u00fa<\/em> : beautiful
\nfei\u2019ot\u00fa!<\/em> : beautifully<\/p>\n

Adverbs<\/strong> usually follow the verb modified, but as in Inj there\u2019s no absolute rule about the placement of an adverb in relation to a verb.<\/p>\n

For adding intensifiers or augmentatives to adverbs, see<\/strong> above section Augmentatives, Intensifiers, and Diminutives<\/strong>.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

This page is under construction! Contains\u00a0 Word Order, Nouns, Articles, Negatives, Interrogatives, Prepositions, Pronouns, Adjectives, Augmentatives, Diminutives, Adverbs !Ka<t\u00e1 is an inflectional language, where grammatical functions are expressed by adding suffixes and prefixes, and some infixes. \u00a0Word Order Basic declarative word order is SVO, same as English.\u00a0 Sometimes the object is placed between the subject […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-295","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/295","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=295"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/295\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":398,"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/295\/revisions\/398"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/remembrancer.conlang.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=295"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}